Yaksha and Jainism

Yaksha and Jainism

Source: d314.pl

The religion of yaksha and naga prevailed across India from the earliest date. This was the cultural milieu in which Sramana movement arose during first millennium B.C.The Sramana movement was not in opposition to any Brahmanical orthodoxy, as narrated by few generation of Indologists. The Brahamanism of Vedas & Upanishads had marginal presence across Indian territory east of Mathura even during the advent of Buddhism. The Sramana movement that included Buddhism, Jainism and ajivikas had to grapple with the nature-worshipping indigenous religions in which tree-spirits, yakshas and the subterranean beings, nagas were primarily venerated. There were other categories of spirits like apsaras, gandharvas, kinnars, rakshasas. But, it was the popularity of worship of these two deities which proved to be challenging for the spread of Sramanic world-views. I must postulate the fact that there is a clear-cut disjuncture between Vedic ritualism and world-view and the indigenous world-view. Vedic people were still learning the art of cultivation and overcoming the pastoral state while the indigenous Indian civilization had a nominal level of urbanization that allowed a part of population to engage in non-agricultural activities. While Vedic societies were engaged in clearing forests, the indigenous urbanized civilization was witnessing the growth of tree-groves where later century Sramana teachers could deliver discourses and stay. While Vedic rituals involved fire as the primary way to connect with the Ultimate Source(they postulated hunger, desire (everything as part pf the primordial fire), the indigenous civilization was more akin to the conception of water, river streams, ponds, lakes, secretion of fluids, intake of juice ,pressing of seeds of sesame to produce oil. The guardian spirit of villages, ponds, groves, cities, Yakshas were believed to be essentially deity of all "wet and pleasant" nature. These bestowed jouissance, rasa-the wet elixir. Rain, dew, blood, semen, and wine(sura) were the gift of these nature-deities. Yakshas carrying the pot of of the spiritual juice of immortality (amrita kalasa) was adopted in the later years theme of Maitreya Buddha and bodhisattavas.Though, the Vedic people did conceive about the soma juice and described about the rituals of drinking soma juice as per lunar landmarks in the later Vedas, the same narrative seems isolated with the general world-view as contained in the Vedas and possibly mere appropriation form the indigenous civilization after initial encounters. The tantras which gave primacy to achieve the salvation through harnessing of wet sap and consummation of liquor, emerged in the eastern part of Indian geo-cultural boundary and appropriated the existing yaksha-tradition in their conception of Bhairava, fierce deities, love-making and immortality .This agamic tradition hardly provides space to the Vedic conceptions of the Universe. . Thus, there was antimony between two world-views, but it was not in relation to each other. The Vedic people had to cut trees for agriculture as well as yagyas involving fire-ritual for most of the activities of life, while the indigenous civilization worshipped trees, preserved and propagated trees. Thus, in the Vedic conception, the universe was reduced into an attribute-less Unity,Advaita(where everything has to be cut down, making the field open for the ploughing), the indigenous world-view offered a vibrant Tushita heaven full of flora and fauna and various beings, human, non-human and other-than-human. One can juxtapose the Jatak stories about Buddha’s previous -birth stories against the dull story-telling of the Upanishads like that of Nachiketa in Katha Upanishad.

Thus, those who believe in the Vedic roots of Indian civilization are mistaken. Indian civilization which we have inherited grew as a consequence of collision of the two different world-views, their mutual antagonism, appropriation, reciprocation as well as constant reformation of the product. One may explain figuratively by putting indigenous civilization as the metal, Vedic civilization as the chisel ,the great saints like the sculptorist and the later centuries devotional movements like the carvings. One gets surprised that one particular being, yakshas have been a constant presence from pre-Sramanic period to the medievakl Bhakti period, from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata of the Hindus to the complex treatises of tantras; from the monuments of the Buddhist and Jainas to the pithas of the Shakta-worshippers; from the groves of the distant lands to the mountains of Kailash, from the centre of excellence like Nalanda, Nagarjunakonda to the cross-road of Asian civilizations, Taxila. Yaksha-worship mesmerized Macedonian army of Alexander, whom they believed to be their own Dionysius god engaged in the merry-making and bestowing pleasure . Interstingly, Yakshas and yakshinis have been sculpted much more than any divine figure from the centres of iconography like Mathura, Sanchi, Nalanda, Taxila. Inspite of the history on the side of these nature-gods, the historians have conjured up stories to negate their influences in the Indian civilization. One may go to Ajanta or sanchi, Sarnath or Kushinagar, Mongolia or Tibet, Gandhara or Mathura, Didarganj or Udaygiri; the material evidences point to the prominence of one particular class of deities, yakshas. But, this conspiracy to relegate them to museums, the conspiracy by the contemporary scholars to give a blind sight to the continuing tradition of tree-worship by the majority of South Asian population suggests of a conspiracy against Nature, a conspiracy to maintain the dichotomy of nature and Culture. But, no culture can maintain gusto without nature and natural roots. I therefore find it appropriate and natural to dig up the roots of contemporary Indian civilization and discover the relationship with nature .since the Jaina texts are the oldest records available containing the records of India’s natural traditions, we may glance over the description about Yaksha in the Jain literature.

Yaksha in Jaina literature

There have been 24 Tirthankars in Jaina tradition. Mahavira(599-527 B.C.) was the last and he was elder to Buddha. Both of them traveled in same areas and the possibility of their dialogue can not be ruled out. I have narrated in earlier piece, “Buddha, Tree, Yakshas”, how tree and tree-deities, Yakshas find prominent place in the hagiography of Buddha. In similar vein, the tree and yakshas have been accorded high status in Jaina literature. Each Trthankar was accompanied by a pair of Yaksha and Yakshini. Thus, 24 prominent yaksha and yakshinis get ample description in the stories of these Jaina tirthankars. An interesting numerical correspondence can be established with the 24 gurus of Dattatreya, the adiguru of the tantras and recurrence of this number in tantra literature where the yakshas and yakshinis find their role properly allotted. A chart mentioning various yaksha-yakshini couples and trees associated with the 24 Tirthankars are summarized below:-

Sl.No.	Tirthankara	Tree	Yaksha	Yakshini
1.	Rishabhanath or Adinatha	Banyan	Gomukha	Chakreshvari (D) Apratichakra (S)
2.	Ajitanath	Shala	Mahayaksha	Rohini (D), Ajitabala (S)
3.	. Sambhavanath	Prayala	Trimukha	Prajnapti (D), Duritarih (S)
4.	. Abhinandana	Priyangu	Yaksheshvara (D); Yakshanayaka (S)	Vajrashrakhala(D), Kalika (S)
5.	. Sumatinath	Shala	Tamburu	Purushadatta (D), Mahakali (S)
6.	. Padmaprabha	Chatra	Kusuma	Manovega,Manogupti (D) Shyama,,Achyuta (S)
7.	Suparshvanath	Shirisa	Varanandi(D) Matanga (S)	Kali (D),Shanta (S)
8.	Chandraprabha	Naga	Shyama (D) Vijaya (D.S.)	Jvalamalini (D) Bhrikuti (S)
9.	Pushpadanta	Shali	Ajita	Mahakali or Ajita (D) Sutara (S)
10.	Sitalanath	Priyangu	Brahma, Brahmeshvara,	Manavi (D) Ashoka (S)
11.	Shreyanshanath	Tanduka	Ishvara (D) Yakset (S)	Gauri (D) Manavi (S)
12.	Vasupuja	Patali	Kumara	Gandhari (D) Chandra (S)
13.	Vimalanath	Jambo	Shanmukha or Karttikeya	Vajroti(D) Vidita (S)
14.	Anantanath	Ashoka	Patala	Anantamati (D) Ankusha (S)
15.	Dharmanath	Dadhi-	Kinnara	Manasi (D) Kandarpa (S)
16.	Santinath	Nandi	Kimpurusha(D) Garuda (S)	Mahamanasi (D) Nirvani (S)
17.	Kunthunath	Bhilaka	Gandharva	Vijaya or Jaya (D) Bala (S)
18.	Aranath	Mango	Kendra (D Yakshendra (S)	Ajita (D) Dharani, Dhana (S)
19.	Mallinath	Ashoka	Kubera	Aparajita (D); Dharanapriya (S)
20.	Munisuvrata	Champaka	Varuna	Bahurupini (D) Naradatta (S)
21.	Naminath	Bakula	Bhrikuti	Chamunda (D) Gandhari (S)
22.	Neminath (Arishtanemi)	Vetasa	Sarvahna (D); Gomedha (S)	Kushmandini or Dharmadevi (D) Ambika (S)
23.	Parshvanath	Dhataki	Dharanendra or Parshvayaksha	Padmavati
24.	Mahavira (Vardhamana)	Shala	Matanga	Siddhayini or Siddhayika

D-Digambar Sect

S-Shwetambar Sect

Jains still worship Yaksas and Yaksinis in Jain temples. Jains believe these to be in the state of demi-gods. The Jainas term tree-deities as Vyantara gods. The Vyantaras are sub-divided into eight groups, Pishachas, Bhutas, Yakshas, Rakshasas, , Kinnaras, Kimpurushas, Mahoragas (Nagas) and Gandharvas. Each group has the symbol of a tree in the following order the Kadamba, sulasa, vata, khatvanga, ashoka, champaka, naga and tumbara, according to Swetambara tradition.Thus, yakshas are associated with vata tree in the jain tradition. In the Uttaradhyayana Sutra Ch. III, 14-18 the Yakshas are desribed as beings that are reborn as men when their fruit of karma in a previous life on earth is exhausted. Even animals may be reborn as guardian Yakshas. In the story of the Jain saint Jivaka, Jivaka rescues a drowning dog, and recites to it the mantras. The dog is reborn as a Yaksha.

The yakshas are believed to be like human beings who have desires and passion and governed by the law of karma. They take birth and die like human beings. Thus, these are the first humanized deities.For Jains, these are the shashan devtas, as they are the protector deities. They are believed to possess supernatural powers like transfiguration. Thus, the yakshas are not only adept in transmigration across time but also transfiguration, teleportation across space. Since these have power to change their size, there have been innumerable iconography of dwarf yakshas . Dwarfs are believed to be stronger and hence the protector deity is represented as much stronger. But, I feel this is a double displacement of the conception of the transcendental. First, the humanization ,then the reduction in size and in later years the miniaturization in the form of talisman of various deities born by the majority of the believers may it be Hindu or Muslims or Sikhs or Christians or Buddhists.

Jains believe that these deities were appointed by Indra to protect the Tirthankaras. Interstingly, in the hagiography of Buddha, Indra himself accompanied by the yaksha Vajrapani fulfills this duty. In Jaina tradition, a pair of a male (yaksha) and a female (yakshini) are always seen on the right and left side of the Tirthankara respectively.The Yaksas were believed to reside in chaitya or ayatana.Ananada Coomarswami had given a beautiful account of Chaityas of yakshas in his marvelous work, “Yaksha”(1971). These caityas could be outside a city, in a grove, on a mountain or at a ghat (shrines of Punnabhadda and Moggara-pani), those of the Indra’s peak Yakkha, and the Yakkha Suciloma near Rajagaha mentioned in the Samyutta Nikaya, Yakkha Suttas” (p.17, Yakshas, Coomarswami) . Thus yaksha-tradition wasappropriated by Jainsim and their residence moved from the outside to inside homes and temples.

Tirthankars bestowed ultimate salvation to mankind and not the material gains. Jains propitiated yaksas and yaksanis for the immediate material gain and to Tirthankars for the ultimate salvation. It was a win-win situation. Yaksa were known for bestowing fecundity and prosperity. It is still a practice among the Hindus that whenever one has problems with fertility, the woman worships at the altar of trees. Jains being the business community developed firm faith in the yaksha worship. Between tenth and thirteenth centuries A. D.,yaksha Saarvanubhuti, or Sarvahna and yakshini Cakreshvari, Ambika, Padmavati, and Jvalamalini became so popular as bestower of material gains that independent sects developed around them with temples fully devoted to these demi-gods.

The earlier jaina scriptures like the Sthanangasutra, Utradhyayansutra, Bhagwatisutra, Tattvarthsutra, Antagadasasaosutra, and Paumacariya mention about Yaksa. Among all the yakshas, Manibhadra and Purnabadra yakshas ofeten find mention. Even I the tantrik text, Mahamayuri of 3-4 yh century A.D., Manibhadra and Purnabhadra find mention as brother yakshas. The holy shrine of Purnabhadra yaksha near Champa finds el;aborate description in the Jain text, Aupapatika Sutra. Another yaksha Moggara-pani of Rajagraha finds references in Jaina canonical works like Antagada Dasao. Moaggara-pani is the tutelary deity of the city in the Jaina literature. Moggara means “club”. Moggara-pani is the club-holder. It is often found that yakshas had their club/chauri in their hands. The Didarganj yakshini placed in Patna Museum depicts this club0wielding form of yaksha/yakshini. In all likelihood, the idea of Hanuman during the devotional movement of the medieval period took off from sich Yakshas like Moggar-pani.

When the tantrik sects emerged with the focuas on worship of female goddesses, the Yakshini worship gained prominence among the Jainas. The worship of goddess Chakreshvari became popular. I have discussed in earlier work how the techne of chakra spread among various vying sects when the millenarian moment arrived from the Buddha Mahaparinirvana calendar. There were temples dedicated to the goddess like Ambika and Padmavati and Jvalamalini also. Even now, many of the yakshini temples survive and the goddesses are worshipped by the local people. These have become part of the syncretic loacal traditions across the areas where Jainism once flourished..

Many of the surviving Hindu gods and goddesses are modification of worship of these yakshas and yakshini devis. Take the case of Ganesha. He is the protector deity and stands as dwarpal like a yaksha. He is a dwarf, a favorite depiction of yakshas to emphasize their ability in changing form and size. He regales in eating, another characteristic of bacchanalian yakshas.There has been an elephant-headed yaksha in Jainism associated with 23^rd Tirthankar, Parsavnatha. Parshva Yaksha is depicted as having an elephant-like face, and his head is sheltered by the hood of a cobra. He has four arms. His carrier is a tortoise. One can compare the adaptation of this figurine and find the continuity of yaksha tradition in the theistic Hinduism that arose during late-Gupta-period and proliferated with the rise of devotional movement during the medieval period.

There is a vast space seeking untrammeled exploration by religious historians. The selective and linear reading of Indian religious history has bereft proper understanding of this great civilization. There is urgent need to explore more on the tradition of indigenous nature-religions whose revival guarantee a Green and Happy future for mankind.

(Niraj, 14.30 hrs. 27.6.2011)